Mobile and ubiquitous learning in higher education settings. A systematic review of empirical studies

Like no previous technology, mobile technology has spread at an unprecedented pace in the last few years. For example, in 2014, the number of mobile phone subscriptions reached six billion (ITU, 2014). Mobile devices are considered cultural tools that are transforming socio-cultural practices and structures in all spheres of life (Pachler, Bachmair, & Cook, 2010). This transformation is considered central even from an evolutionary perspective because it empowers humankind to engage in interactions that are free from the constraints of physical proximity and spatial immobility for the first time (Geser, 2004). Digital mobile devices such as cell phones, PDAs, and smart phones are also being used increasingly often for educational purposes. The educational use of digital mobile technology is at the core of vibrant and expanding streams of research known as mobile and ubiquitous learning. Both concepts are strongly interconnected. While some authors describe ubiquitous learning as a next-generation form of mobile learning where technology fades more into the background (Park, 2011), the terms are often used interchangeably (Hwang & Tsai, 2011). In essence, both approaches strongly emphasise the notion of ’context’ in learning. The field of mobile learning conceives the crossing of contexts as one of its constitutional characteristics (Pimmer, 2016).